The Open Systems Interconnection Reference model (usually called the OSI model for short) helped change the face of network computing. Before the OSI model, most commercial networks used by businesses were built using nonstandardized technologies developed by one vendor (remember that the Internet was in use at the time but was not widespread and certainly was not commercial). During the late 1970s, the International Organization for Standardization (IOS) created the Open System Interconnection Subcommittee, whose task was to develop a framework of standards for computer-to-computer communications. In 1984, this effort produced the OSI model.
The OSI model is the most talked about and most referred to network model. If you choose a career in networking, questions about the OSI model will be on the network certification exams offered by Microsoft, Cisco, and other vendors of network hardware and software. However, you will probably never use a network based on the OSI model. Simply put, the OSI model never caught on commercially in North America, although some European networks use it, and some network components developed for use in the United States arguably use parts of it. Most networks today use the Internet model, which is discussed in the next section. However, because there are many similarities between the OSI model and the Internet model, and because most people in networking are expected to know the OSI model, we discuss it here. The OSI model has seven layers (see Figure 1.3).
Layer 1: Physical Layer The physical layer is concerned primarily with transmitting data bits (zeros or ones) over a communication circuit. This layer defines the rules by which ones and zeros are transmitted, such as voltages of electricity, number of bits sent per second, and the physical format of the cables and connectors used.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer The data link layer manages the physical transmission circuit in layer 1 and transforms it into a circuit that is free of transmission errors as far as layers above are concerned. Because layer 1 accepts and transmits only a raw stream of bits without understanding their meaning or structure, the data link layer must create and recognize message boundaries; that is, it must mark where a message starts and where it ends. Another major task of layer 2 is to solve the problems caused by damaged, lost, or duplicate messages so the succeeding layers are shielded from transmission errors. Thus, layer 2 performs error detection and correction. It also decides when a device can transmit so that two computers do not try to transmit at the same time.

Figure 1.3: Network models. OSI = Open Systems Interconnection Reference
Layer 3: Network Layer The network layer performs routing. It determines the next computer the message should be sent to so it can follow the best route through the network and finds the full address for that computer if needed.
Layer 4: Transport Layer The transport layer deals with end-to-end issues, such as procedures for entering and departing from the network. It establishes, maintains, and terminates logical connections for the transfer of data between the original sender and the final destination of the message. It is responsible for breaking a large data transmission into smaller packets (if needed), ensuring that all the packets have been received, eliminating duplicate packets, and performing flow control to ensure that no computer is overwhelmed by the number of messages it receives. Although error control is performed by the data link layer, the transport layer can also perform error checking.
Layer 5: Session Layer The session layer is responsible for managing and structuring all sessions. Session initiation must arrange for all the desired and required services between session participants, such as logging onto circuit equipment, transferring files, and performing security checks. Session termination provides an orderly way to end the session, as well as