A Stop in Africa on the Way Up
In 1798, Napoleon was given command of an army that sailed across the Mediterranean, capturing Malta and landing in Egypt. After he defeated a Mameluke force at the Battle of the Pyramids, Bonaparte seized Cairo. The French position was jeopardized by destruction of the French fleet skillfully conducted by the British Admiral Nelson. Napoleon’s invasion of Syria in 1799 failed to turn around French fortunes, so he departed, leaving his army to its fate.
A skillful public relations campaign kept Napoleon’s standing high with the public. As a result of a coup in 1799, he was made one of three Consuls, soon becoming the First Consul and consolidating his authority. The following year Bonaparte launched a campaign against Austrian forces in Italy, leading to victory at Marengo. As a result, Austria signed the Treaty of Luneville, terminating the Second Coalition against France. Britain, too, sought accommodation, and the Peace of Amiens brought peace to France and the opportunity for domestic reform.
Ever a pragmatist, Napoleon sought to gain efficiency at all levels of government. His Concordat with the Papacy brought a general reconciliation with Rome, while economic reforms—including the establishment of the Bank of France and ensuring a metal-based currency that fixed the price of the franc—served to calm social anxieties. Furthermore, French law was codified and the education system was reoriented to prepare capable young people from the middle layers of society for opportunities for public service and entry into the professions. These modernizations all enhanced Napoleon’s reputation, and a plebiscite made him Consul for life.
The Autocrat Alters Europe’s Armies
Napoleon viewed himself as the successor to Charlemagne and hence promoted the creation of an Empire of France. Another plebiscite duly proclaimed him Emperor, and his coronation occurred in December 1804. In 1805 he added the title of King of Italy.
While Napoleon’s reforms proceeded apace at home, Britain had resumed hostilities in 1803 and would orchestrate another four coalitions against France. Napoleon ultimately would find himself in a long strategic war of attrition, but he struggled mightily to avoid